| Peer-Reviewed

Fluoride Levels in Surface and Groundwater in Africa: A Review

Received: 6 January 2017     Accepted: 19 January 2017     Published: 18 February 2017
Views:       Downloads:
Abstract

Fluoride has been reported to be among natural pollutant of water in Africa. High fluoride levels beyond the recommended World Health Organization limit of 1.5 mg/l has been observed in various Africa countries. However, the information is scattered in different publication medium. Therefore, objective of this work was to put together the information on fluoride levels in surface and groundwater in Africa, and describe the status and distribution of fluoride in water among African countries. This study assembled the secondary data of fluoride concentrations in surface and groundwater from the various literatures in African countries. Such countries represent southern, northern, eastern and western Africa. Descriptive statistics was used and results showed that elevated fluoride concentration occurred in countries such as Tanzania, Kenya, Algeria, Nigeria, Ghana, Malawi, Sudan, Uganda, the Republic of South Africa and Ethiopia. The highest fluoride concentration reported was 2,800 mg/l in Lake Nakuru in Kenya. The high fluoride concentrations in water can be linked to volcanic activities, presence of thermal waters especially those with high pH, gases emitted from earth’s crust, granitic and gneissic rocks. The high fluoride in water is severe in countries located in East African Rift Valley like Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia. However, all the incidences of highest fluoride levels in water in the Rift Valley countries were found in surface water bodies. This is contrary, as it is expected groundwater to be more concentrated as compared to surface water due to more water rock interaction than in surface water bodies. There was no single study among many studies has reported the long term trend of concentration of fluoride in water with time. Thus, the effort to establish long term trend of fluoride concentration in water should be taken in consideration. This helps to predict future concentration of fluoride and possibility to minimize future risks. Also, fluorosis has also been reported to be endemic in fluoritic areas of Africa though, little is known on other fluoride negative effects. Therefore, more efforts should concentrate on finding appropriate defluoridation techniques to be applied while considering the cost of operation, efficiency, practicability, easy application and environmental friendly.

Published in American Journal of Water Science and Engineering (Volume 3, Issue 1)
DOI 10.11648/j.ajwse.20170301.11
Page(s) 1-17
Creative Commons

This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.

Copyright

Copyright © The Author(s), 2017. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Fluoride, Distribution, Surface Water, Groundwater, Africa

References
[1] Frencken, J., Endemic fluorosis in developing countries: causes, effects and possible solutions, TNO Institute for Preventive Health Care, 1992.
[2] Brunt, R., L. Vasak, and J. Griffioen, Fluoride in groundwater: probability of occurrence of excessive concentration on global scale, IGRAC, 2004.
[3] Ramadan, A. and Y. Hilmi "The influence of climate on the determination of the upper permissible fluoride level in potable water in Sudan". 2014.
[4] WHO, Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, Volume1: Recommendations and volume 2: Health Criteria and Other Supporting Information. 1984: Geneva.
[5] Tekle-Haimanot, R., A. Fekadu, B. Bushera, and Y. Mekonnen "Fluoride levels in water and endemic fluorosis in Ethiopian Rift Valley". Ngurdoto, Tanzania October 18-21, 1995, 1995, 12.
[6] Emslie, R. "A dental health survey in the Republic of the Sudan". British Dental Journal, (120), 1966, 167-178.
[7] Grech, P. "Fluorosis in young persons. A further survey in Northern Tanganyika, Tanzania". The British journal of radiology, (39), 1966, 761-764.
[8] Møller, I., J. Pindborg, I. Gedalia, and B. Roed-Petersen "The prevalence of dental fluorosis in the people of Uganda". Archives of oral biology, (15), 1970, 213-225.
[9] Bardecki, C. "Fluoride probability in Tanzania waters". Maji Review, (1), 1974, 55-61.
[10] Nair, K., F. Manji, and J. Gitonga "The occurrence and distribution of fluoride in groundwaters of Kenya". East Afr Med J, (61), 1984, 503-512.
[11] Bano, A., W. Isichei, S. Das, L. Morimoto, and S. Nagataki, "Common trace elements in potable water in Plateau State of Nigeria and their impact on goiter prevalence in the state", In Proceedings of Nigeria–Japan joint conference on trace metal, giotre, diarrhea, medical entomology, and epidemiology.1987.
[12] Grobler, S. and A. Dreyer "Variations in the fluoride levels of drinking water in South Africa. Implications for fluoride supplementation". 1988.
[13] Gikunju, J. K., Fluoride in water and fish from Kenyan rift valley lakes. 1990, University of Nairobi.
[14] Mungoma, S. "The alkaline, saline lakes of Uganda: a review". Hydrobiologia, (208), 1990, 75-80.
[15] Zerai, H., "Assessment of thermal mineral waters in the surroundings of Dengolo, Semhar Province, Eastern Eritrea", in Report, Water Research Department, 1993.
[16] Gumbo, F. and G. Mkongo "Water defluoridation for rural fluoride affected communities in Tanzania". Ngurdoto, Tanzania October 18-21, 1995, 1995, 109-114.
[17] Ibrahim, Y., A. Affan, and K. Bjorvatn "Fluoride and fluorosis in the Sudan". Ngurdoto, Tanzania October 18-21, 1995, 1995, 29.
[18] Smedley, P., W. Edmunds, J. West, S. Gardner, and K. Pelig-Ba, Health problems related to groundwaters in the Obuasi and Bolgatanga areas, Ghana. British Geological Survey Technical Report. 1995, WC/95/43.
[19] Louw, A. and U. Chickte, "Fluoride and fluorosis: The status on research in South Africa", In Proceedings of the 2nd International workshop on fluorosis and defluoridation of water. Nazreth, Ethiopia: The International Society for Fluoride Research.15-23, 1997.
[20] Rwenyonyi, M., K. Bjorvatn, J. Birkeland, and O. Haugejorden "Dental fluorosis in relation to altitude and fluoride in drinking water in Uganda". orosis &, 1997, 23.
[21] Pelig-Ba, K. "Trace elements in groundwater from some crystalline rocks in the Upper Regions of Ghana". Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, (103), 1998, 71-89.
[22] Kloos, H. and R. T. Haimanot "Distribution of fluoride and fluorosis in Ethiopia and prospects for control". Tropical Medicine & International Health, (4), 1999, 355-364.
[23] British Geological Survey, Groundwater Quality: Tanzania, B. G. Survey, Editor. 2000.
[24] Smedley, P., H. Nkotagu, K. Pelig-Ba, A. MacDonald, R. Tyler-Whittle, E. Whitehead, and D. Kinniburgh "Fluoride in groundwater from high-fluoride areas of Ghana and Tanzania". 2002.
[25] Srikanth, R., K. Viswanatham, F. Kahsai, A. Fisahatsion, and M. Asmellash "Fluoride in groundwater in selected villages in Eritrea (North East Africa)". Environmental monitoring and assessment, (75), 2002, 169-177.
[26] Mjengera, H. and G. Mkongo "Appropriate deflouridation technology for use in flourotic areas in Tanzania". Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, (28), 2003, 1097-1104.
[27] Njenga, J. "Comparative studies of water chemistry of four tropical lakes in Kenya and India". Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, (1), 2004, 87-97.
[28] Dibal, H. and U. Lar "Preliminary survey of fluoride concentrations in the groundwater of Kaltungo area, Gombe State, northeastern Nigeria". Journal of Environmental Sciences, (9), 2005.
[29] Masamba, W., S. Sajidu, B. Thole, and J. Mwatseteza "Water defluoridation using Malawi’s locally sourced gypsum". Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, (30), 2005, 846-849.
[30] Ncube, E. and C. Schutte "The occurrence of fluoride in South African groundwater: A water quality and health problem". Water SA, (31), 2005, 35-40.
[31] Fawell, J., K. Bailey, J. Chilton, E. Dahi, L. Fewtrell, and Y. Magara "Fluoride in Drinking-Water". World Health Organization, Geneva, 2006,
[32] Kaseva, M. "Contribution of trona (magadi) into excessive fluorosis—a case study in Maji ya Chai ward, northern Tanzania". Science of the total environment, (366), 2006, 92-100.
[33] Messaïtfa, A. "Fluoride contents in groundwaters and the main consumed foods (dates and tea) in Southern Algeria region". Environmental geology, (55), 2008, 377-383.
[34] Sajidu, S., W. Masamba, B. Thole, and J. Mwatseteza "Groundwater fluoride levels in villages of Southern Malawi and removal studies using bauxite". Int. J. Phys. Sci, (3), 2008, 1-11.
[35] Akpata, E., I. Danfillo, E. Otoh, and J. Mafeni "Geographical mapping of fluoride levels in drinking water sources in Nigeria". African health sciences, (9), 2009.
[36] Ghiglieri, G., R. Balia, G. Oggiano, and D. Pittalis "Prospecting for safe (low fluoride) groundwater in the Eastern African Rift: the Arumeru District (Northern Tanzania)". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions, (14), 2010, 1081-1091.
[37] Obuobie, E. and B. Barry "Groundwater in sub-Saharan Africa: Implications for food security and livelihoods". Ghana Country status on Groundwater. Final Report, 2010.
[38] Abdellah, A. M., H. M. Abdel-Magid, and N. A. Yahia "Effect of Long-term Pumping on Fluoride Concentration Levels in Groundwater: A Case Study from East of Blue Nile Communities of Sudan". 2012.
[39] Sekkoum, K., A. Cheriti, M. F. Talhi, N. Belboukhari, N. Boulenouar, S. Taleb, and Y. Bourmita, Water in Algerian Sahara: Environmental and Health impact, INTECH Open Access Publisher, 2012.
[40] Atia, D. and A. Hoggui "Decreasing fluoride by coagulation in drinkable water from Souf region of Algeria". International Letters of Chemistry, Physics and Astronomy, (5), 2013, 57-65.
[41] Thole, B. "Ground Water Contamination with Fluoride and Potential Fluoride Removal Technologies for East and Southern Africa". 2013,
[42] Alfredo, K. A., D. F. Lawler, and L. E. Katz "Fluoride contamination in the Bongo District of Ghana, West Africa: geogenic contamination and cultural complexities". Water International, (39), 2014, 486-503.
[43] Isah, H. A., U. A. Mohammed, and A. A. Mohammed "Environmental distribution of fluoride in drinking waters of Kaltungo area, North-Eastern Nigeria". American Journal of Environmental Protection, (3), 2014, 19-24.
[44] Mehari, B. B., A. O. Mayabi, and B. K. Kakoi "Development of Household Defluoridation Unit Based on Crushed Burnt Clay Pot as Sorbent Medium: A Case of Keren Community, Eritrea". Environment and Natural Resources Research, (4), 2014, p67.
[45] AbuZeid, K. and L. Elhatow, "Impact of fluoride content in drinking water", In Arab Water Healthy Conference Egypt: Cairo.2007.
[46] Brindha, K. and L. Elango "Fluoride in groundwater: causes, implications and mitigation measures". Fluoride properties, applications and environmental management, 2011, 111-136.
[47] Deshmukht, A., P. Wadaskarl, and D. Malpd "Fluorine in environment: A review". 1995.
[48] Perelʹman, A. I. and A. LEVINSON "Geochemistry of elements in the supergene zone". Transl. into ENGLISH of the book"" Geokhimiya Elementov v Zone Gipergeneza'' Moscow, Nedra Press, 1972 274 p, 1977.
[49] Wedepohl, K. H., ed. Hand-book of Geochernistry. Vol. II. 1974, Springer-Verlage Berlin: New Yorl. 9k.
[50] Edmunds, W. M., Characterisation of groundwaters in semi-arid and arid zones using minor and major elements. Groundwater quality, ed. H. N. G. J. H. McCall, Chapman & Hall, London, 1995.
[51] Robinson, W. and G. Edgington "Fluorine in soils". Soil Science, (61), 1946, 341-354.
[52] Kokubo, N. "Fluorine in rocks". Memoirs of the Faculty of Science, Kyusyu University. Series C, Chemistry (2), 1956, 95-149.
[53] Gaciri, S. and T. Davies "The occurrence and geochemistry of fluoride in some natural waters of Kenya". Journal of Hydrology, (143), 1993, 395-412.
[54] Handa, B. "Geochemistry and Genesis of Fluoride‐Containing Ground Waters in India". Groundwater, (13), 1975, 275-281.
[55] Koffi, K. M., S. Coulibaly12,. C. ATSE, and E. Paul "Survey of heavy metals concentrations in water and sediments of the Estuary Bietri Bay, Ebrie Lagoon, Cote D’Ivoire". International Journal, (1), 2014, 2311-2484.
[56] Saxena, V. and S. Ahmed "Inferring the chemical parameters for the dissolution of fluoride in groundwater". Environmental Geology, (43), 2003, 731-736.
[57] Saxena, V. and S. Ahmed "Dissolution of fluoride in groundwater: a water-rock interaction study". Environmental geology, (40), 2001, 1084-1087.
[58] Rao, N. R., N. Rao, K. S. P. Rao, and R. Schuiling "Fluorine distribution in waters of Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh, India". Environmental Geology, (21), 1993, 84-89.
[59] Rao, N. S. "The occurrence and behaviour of fluoride in the groundwater of the Lower Vamsadhara River basin, India". Hydrological sciences journal, (42), 1997, 877-892.
[60] Mamatha, P. and S. M. Rao "Geochemistry of fluoride rich groundwater in Kolar and Tumkur Districts of Karnataka". Environmental Earth Sciences, (61), 2010, 131-142.
[61] Fleischer, M. a. R., W. O., "Some problems of the geochemistry of fluorine", in Studies in Analytical Geochemistry, D. M. Shaw, Editor, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1963.
[62] Grobler, S., C. Van Wyk, and D. Kotze "Relationship between enamel fluoride levels, degree of fluorosis and caries experience in communities with a nearly optimal and a high fluoride level in the drinking water". Caries research, (20), 1986, 284-288.
[63] Cravotta, C. A., Use of stable isotopes of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur to identify sources of nitrogen in surface waters in the lower Susquehanna River Basin, Pennsylvania, USGPO, 2002.
[64] Feenstra, L., L. Vasak, and J. Griffioen "Fluoride in groundwater: Overview and evaluation of removal methods". International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre Report nr. SP, (1), 2007.
[65] Ansari, M., M. Kazemipour, M. Dehghani, and M. Kazemipour "The defluoridation of drinking water using multi-walled carbon nanotubes". Journal of Fluorine Chemistry, (132), 2011, 516-520.
[66] Firempong, C., K. Nsiah, D. Awunyo-Vitor, and J. Dongsogo "Soluble fluoride levels in drinking water-a major risk factor of dental fluorosis among children in Bongo community of Ghana". Ghana medical journal, (47), 2013, 16-23.
[67] Peter, K. H. "Defluoridation of high fluoride waters from natural water sources by using soils rich in bauxite and kaolinite". Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, (4), 2009, 240-246.
[68] Shrivastava, B. K. and A. Vani "Comparative study of defluoridation technologies in India". Asian J. Exp. Sci, (23), 2009, 269-274.
[69] Thole, B. "Defluoridation kinetics of 200 C calcined bauxite, gypsum, and magnesite and breakthrough characteristics of their composite filter". Journal of Fluorine Chemistry, (132), 2011, 529-535.
[70] Fawell, J. and M. J. Nieuwenhuijsen "Contaminants in drinking water Environmental pollution and health". British Medical Bulletin, (68), 2003, 199-208.
[71] Sharma, J., M. Sharma, and P. Agrawal "Effect of fluoride contaminated drinking water in albino rats Rattus norvegicus". Asian Journal of Experimental Sciences, (18), 2004, 37-46.
[72] Rural Water Supply Health Standard Comittee, Temporary standards of quality of domestic water in Tanzania. Maji Review 1(1) 69–71 (Ministry of Water Development and Power, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 1974.
[73] Mjengera, H., Excess fluoride in potable water in Tanzania and the defluoridation technology with emphasis on the use of polyaluminium chloride and magnesite, Tampereen teknillinen korkeakoulu, 1988.
[74] Nkotagu, H. "Geochemistry of shallow groundwater at Kigamboni peninsula along Dar es Salaam coastal strip Tanzania". Journal of African Earth Sciences (and the Middle East), (9), 1989, 739-748.
[75] Antwi, L. "Natural fluoride levels of some borehole and river waters in the Accra Plains and upper regions of Ghana". Tropical Dental Journal, 1995, 7-13.
[76] Meskel, S. T. "Correlation of Fluoride and Iron Concentrations in Rift Valley Aquifer of Jimma, Ethiopia". Eli Dahi Sunsanee Rajchagool & Nipaphan Osiriphan, 2000, 45.
[77] Griesel, M., A. Kuhn, P. Kempster, M. Mamabolo, and M. Silberbauer "Report on an integrated water quality monitoring programme conducted in the town of Delmas, November 2005 to June 2006". Pretoria: DWAF, 2006.
[78] Ncube, E. J. "The distribution of fluoride in South African groundwater and the impact thereof on dental health". 2006,
[79] Ayenew, T. "The distribution and hydrogeological controls of fluoride in the groundwater of central Ethiopian rift and adjacent highlands". Environmental Geology, (54), 2008, 1313-1324.
[80] Coetsiers, M., F. Kilonzo, and K. Walraevens "Hydrochemistry and source of high fluoride in groundwater of the Nairobi area, Kenya/Hydrochimie et origine des fortes concentrations en fluorure dans l'eau souterraine de la région de Nairobi, au Kenya". Hydrological sciences journal, (53), 2008, 1230-1240.
[81] Sajidu, S., F. Masumbu, E. Fabiano, and C. Ngongondo "Drinking water quality and identification of fluoritic areas in Machinga, Malawi". Malawi Journal of Science and Technology, (8), 2014, 42-56.
[82] Arhin, E. and M. Affam "Fluoride in groundwater and its implications in west Gonja District of Ghana". Ghana Mining Journal, (11), 2010,
[83] Nedaw, D. "Water Balance and Groundwater Quality of Koraro Area, Tigray, Northern Ethiopia". Momona Ethiopian Journal of Science, (2), 2010, 110-127.
[84] Omwenga, B., Structural and geological control of fluoride levels in groundwater and defluoridation in Elementaita, Nakuru county, Kenya. 2011, University of Nairobi.
[85] Gbadebo, A. "Groundwater fluoride and dental fluorosis in southwestern Nigeria". Environmental geochemistry and health, (34), 2012, 597-604.
[86] Maxwell, A.-G., Z. M. Saeed, and A. Ntiforo "The Origin of Fluoride in Groundwaters of the Paleozoic Sedimentary Formations of Ghana-A Preliminary Study in Gushiegu District". 2012,
[87] Rango, T., J. Kravchenko, B. Atlaw, P. G. McCornick, M. Jeuland, B. Merola, and A. Vengosh "Groundwater quality and its health impact: an assessment of dental fluorosis in rural inhabitants of the Main Ethiopian Rift". Environment international, (43), 2012, 37-47.
[88] Rango, T., A. Vengosh, M. Jeuland, R. Tekle-Haimanot, E. Weinthal, J. Kravchenko, C. Paul, and P. McCornick "Fluoride exposure from groundwater as reflected by urinary fluoride and children's dental fluorosis in the Main Ethiopian Rift Valley". Science of the Total Environment, (496), 2014, 188-197.
[89] Adekola, O., A. Bashir, and A.-M. Kasimu "Physico-chemical characteristics of borehole water quality in Gassol Taraba State, Nigeria". African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, (9), 2015, 143-154.
[90] Craig, L., A. Lutz, K. A. Berry, and W. Yang "Recommendations for fluoride limits in drinking water based on estimated daily fluoride intake in the Upper East Region, Ghana". Science of The Total Environment, (532), 2015, 127-137.
[91] Naslund, J. and I. Snell "GIS Mapping of Fluoride Contaminated Groundwater in Nakuru & Baringo District Kenya". MSc Programmes in Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Division of Sanitary Engineering, Lulea University of Technology, Sweden, 2005.
[92] Moola, M. "Fluoride in Drinking Water and its Effects on Human Health and Nutrition in Selected Towns of the Northern Cape Province, South Africa ". Report to the Water Research Commission WRC Report No 1094/1/08 ISBN 978-1-77005-778-4N, 2008.
[93] Kushe, J. F., Assessment of the chemical quality of groundwater for drinking in Dedza. 2009, University of Zimbabwe.
[94] Nsiah, J. J. and E. Boakye "Assessment of the Quality of Water from Hand-Dug Wells in Shama Ahanta West Metropolitan Assembly: Western Region of Ghana". International Journal of Science and Technology, (5), 2015.
[95] Kendall, E., Oggeri, F., Potter, A., Weinthal, E., Vengosh, A., Selmer, J., "Change A Life Uganda: Migyera Community Water Project". 2015.
[96] John Mkungu, R. L. M., Alfred Nzibavuga Nyarubakula Muzuka "Application of soil composition for inferring fluoride variability in volcanic areas of Mt. Meru, Tanzania". International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, (2), 2014, 231-238.
[97] Pangani Basin Water Board. "Groundwater assessment of the Pangani Basin/Tanzania". Pangani Basin Water Board, 2011.
[98] British Geological Survey "Groundwater Quality: Uganda" NERC 2001, British Geological Survey, 2001.
[99] Tekle-Haimanot, R., Z. Melaku, H. Kloos, C. Reimann, W. Fantaye, L. Zerihun, and K. Bjorvatn "The geographic distribution of fluoride in surface and groundwater in Ethiopia with an emphasis on the Rift Valley". Science of the Total Environment, (367), 2006, 182-190.
[100] Lar, U., H. Dibal, R. Daspan, and S. Jaryum "Fluoride occurrence in the surface and groundwaters of Fobur area of Jos East LGA, Plateau State". Journal of Environmental Sciences, (11), 2007, 99-105.
[101] Dibal, H., Fluoride concentration in some parts of northern Nigeria. 2012, PhD Dissertation, Department of Geology, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria.
[102] Mensah, M. "Assessment of drinking water quality in Ehi Community in the ketu-north District of the volta region of Ghana". 2011.
Cite This Article
  • APA Style

    Jovine Malago, Edikafubeni Makoba, Alfred N. N. Muzuka. (2017). Fluoride Levels in Surface and Groundwater in Africa: A Review. American Journal of Water Science and Engineering, 3(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajwse.20170301.11

    Copy | Download

    ACS Style

    Jovine Malago; Edikafubeni Makoba; Alfred N. N. Muzuka. Fluoride Levels in Surface and Groundwater in Africa: A Review. Am. J. Water Sci. Eng. 2017, 3(1), 1-17. doi: 10.11648/j.ajwse.20170301.11

    Copy | Download

    AMA Style

    Jovine Malago, Edikafubeni Makoba, Alfred N. N. Muzuka. Fluoride Levels in Surface and Groundwater in Africa: A Review. Am J Water Sci Eng. 2017;3(1):1-17. doi: 10.11648/j.ajwse.20170301.11

    Copy | Download

  • @article{10.11648/j.ajwse.20170301.11,
      author = {Jovine Malago and Edikafubeni Makoba and Alfred N. N. Muzuka},
      title = {Fluoride Levels in Surface and Groundwater in Africa: A Review},
      journal = {American Journal of Water Science and Engineering},
      volume = {3},
      number = {1},
      pages = {1-17},
      doi = {10.11648/j.ajwse.20170301.11},
      url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajwse.20170301.11},
      eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajwse.20170301.11},
      abstract = {Fluoride has been reported to be among natural pollutant of water in Africa. High fluoride levels beyond the recommended World Health Organization limit of 1.5 mg/l has been observed in various Africa countries. However, the information is scattered in different publication medium. Therefore, objective of this work was to put together the information on fluoride levels in surface and groundwater in Africa, and describe the status and distribution of fluoride in water among African countries. This study assembled the secondary data of fluoride concentrations in surface and groundwater from the various literatures in African countries. Such countries represent southern, northern, eastern and western Africa. Descriptive statistics was used and results showed that elevated fluoride concentration occurred in countries such as Tanzania, Kenya, Algeria, Nigeria, Ghana, Malawi, Sudan, Uganda, the Republic of South Africa and Ethiopia. The highest fluoride concentration reported was 2,800 mg/l in Lake Nakuru in Kenya. The high fluoride concentrations in water can be linked to volcanic activities, presence of thermal waters especially those with high pH, gases emitted from earth’s crust, granitic and gneissic rocks. The high fluoride in water is severe in countries located in East African Rift Valley like Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia. However, all the incidences of highest fluoride levels in water in the Rift Valley countries were found in surface water bodies. This is contrary, as it is expected groundwater to be more concentrated as compared to surface water due to more water rock interaction than in surface water bodies. There was no single study among many studies has reported the long term trend of concentration of fluoride in water with time. Thus, the effort to establish long term trend of fluoride concentration in water should be taken in consideration. This helps to predict future concentration of fluoride and possibility to minimize future risks. Also, fluorosis has also been reported to be endemic in fluoritic areas of Africa though, little is known on other fluoride negative effects. Therefore, more efforts should concentrate on finding appropriate defluoridation techniques to be applied while considering the cost of operation, efficiency, practicability, easy application and environmental friendly.},
     year = {2017}
    }
    

    Copy | Download

  • TY  - JOUR
    T1  - Fluoride Levels in Surface and Groundwater in Africa: A Review
    AU  - Jovine Malago
    AU  - Edikafubeni Makoba
    AU  - Alfred N. N. Muzuka
    Y1  - 2017/02/18
    PY  - 2017
    N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajwse.20170301.11
    DO  - 10.11648/j.ajwse.20170301.11
    T2  - American Journal of Water Science and Engineering
    JF  - American Journal of Water Science and Engineering
    JO  - American Journal of Water Science and Engineering
    SP  - 1
    EP  - 17
    PB  - Science Publishing Group
    SN  - 2575-1875
    UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajwse.20170301.11
    AB  - Fluoride has been reported to be among natural pollutant of water in Africa. High fluoride levels beyond the recommended World Health Organization limit of 1.5 mg/l has been observed in various Africa countries. However, the information is scattered in different publication medium. Therefore, objective of this work was to put together the information on fluoride levels in surface and groundwater in Africa, and describe the status and distribution of fluoride in water among African countries. This study assembled the secondary data of fluoride concentrations in surface and groundwater from the various literatures in African countries. Such countries represent southern, northern, eastern and western Africa. Descriptive statistics was used and results showed that elevated fluoride concentration occurred in countries such as Tanzania, Kenya, Algeria, Nigeria, Ghana, Malawi, Sudan, Uganda, the Republic of South Africa and Ethiopia. The highest fluoride concentration reported was 2,800 mg/l in Lake Nakuru in Kenya. The high fluoride concentrations in water can be linked to volcanic activities, presence of thermal waters especially those with high pH, gases emitted from earth’s crust, granitic and gneissic rocks. The high fluoride in water is severe in countries located in East African Rift Valley like Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia. However, all the incidences of highest fluoride levels in water in the Rift Valley countries were found in surface water bodies. This is contrary, as it is expected groundwater to be more concentrated as compared to surface water due to more water rock interaction than in surface water bodies. There was no single study among many studies has reported the long term trend of concentration of fluoride in water with time. Thus, the effort to establish long term trend of fluoride concentration in water should be taken in consideration. This helps to predict future concentration of fluoride and possibility to minimize future risks. Also, fluorosis has also been reported to be endemic in fluoritic areas of Africa though, little is known on other fluoride negative effects. Therefore, more efforts should concentrate on finding appropriate defluoridation techniques to be applied while considering the cost of operation, efficiency, practicability, easy application and environmental friendly.
    VL  - 3
    IS  - 1
    ER  - 

    Copy | Download

Author Information
  • Department of Water, Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, Tanzania

  • Department of Water, Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, Tanzania

  • Department of Water, Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, Tanzania

  • Sections